Two Ways of Losing Weight

Eating healthy and nutritious benefits your body when losing weight. While developing an eating disorder causes more harm than good. I am writing about this subject because I have an insight into the subject. I was struggling my whole childhood and I experienced being overweight and I have tried everything in the book to lose weight. In the process I even had an eating disorder for a while and I started to get really un-healthy because of it. So I finally got a grasp on what to do to eat healthy and how to maintain my weight the right way. By doing it the correct way I have kept the weight off, and I feel much healthier inside as well as out.By eating healthy and nutritious you can lose weight, and do it correctly. A balanced diet involves the intake of appropriate foods and drinks that supply nutrition and energy for the maintenance of body cells, tissues, and organs, also to support normal growth and development. Based on the USDA’s food pyramid it will include bread, cereal , rice, and pasta ( six -11 servings a day), vegetables (Three-five), fruit (two-four), dairy (two-three), meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs and nuts (two-three), and fats, oils and sweets (you use sparingly).Portion control is a very important part you need to pay attention to. The best way to judge the right size of a portion that is correct for your body. Is not by the instructions on the side of all food products, but what I have found to be true is to judge a portion by the size of your fist. On top of that what I have found to work is not to eat three meals a day but to have five of these portions throughout the day. By doing this you will make your metabolism work even harder all day toward the loss of weight.The second main step to losing weight the correct way is to incorporate physical activity into your daily routine. The best way to get the ball rolling on this is to stay active with common chores. For instance you can wash and wax a car if you have one for (45-60 min ), wash windows or floors for (45-60 min), Do some gardening for (35-40 min), If you have a baby you can push the stroller (one and a half miles in 30 min), or you can rake the leaves if there are any for (30 min). These are a few examples for beginners to get started without wearing out your body.If you want to get a little more serious right away you can use sports for your daily activity. For instance you can play basketball or shoot hoops for (30-45 min), swimming in the pool or doing laps for (30-45 min), ride a bicycle (four miles in 25-30 min), and then there is jumping a rope for (25 min). These routines are a little more strenuous so I would start off small to see what your body can handle, then build up a routine once you see what you are capable of. Now I will compare how developing an eating disorder to lose weight will affect your body. Also show how the side effects are not worth it.By developing an anorexic disorder to lose weight is not the right path to take. Being anorexic means that you don’t eat food, or have no desire to eat. It is a relentless pursuit of thinness and unwillingness to maintain a normal healthy weight. The bad affects that this has on the body is not worth the amount of weight that is lost. Some of the less severe effects on the body are thinning of your bones (Osteoporosis), brittle hair and nails, dry and yellowish skin, growth of fine hair all over the body (Lanugo), mild anemia and muscle wasting and weakness, and severe constipation.Now there are even more severe effects on the body, they are as follows, damage to the structure and function of the heart, brain damage, and multi organ failure. To lose weight this way is definitely not worth all of these damaging side effects, especially with the severity of some of them. By utilizing this weight loss method to lose weight, you lower your total health and lose vital nutrients the body needs to be healthy. When trying to lose weight correctly, there are many ways t o do it wrong.The eating disorder Bulimia Nervosa is probably the worst option when you are trying to lose weight in a healthy manner. Bulimia affects approximately twelve individuals in a hundred thousand populations, and some reports estimate that one percent of females are affected and point one percent of males. Many people try to lose weight this way, and the side effects can range from minimal to severe. One third of people with bulimia take laxatives and diuretics, these have the most severe effects on your body.They are chronic intestinal inflammation, irregular bowel function, systemic toxicity, kidney damage, body fluid stagnation, and blood pressure complications. So for trying to lose weight in this manner is un-healthy, un-nutritious, and not the correct or successful way to lose weight in a healthy manner. It is far worse for your body and mind than taking the time to do it in a healthy and correct manner, so that the results are far more beneficial to you for a longer period of time.So in conclusion the point that I am trying to really get across to you is how to lose weight in a healthy and correct manner instead of doing it quickly and incorrectly. The correct way of losing weight is by combining eating correctly, portion control, and incorporating physical activity into your daily routine. You can use the USDA’s food pyramid to see what you should eat on a daily routine. Then you use portion control which is eating the right amount of food in a day just like taking in the right nutrients, vitamins, and all the right supplements.By incorporating these things into your daily routine with devotion and a solid routine, you can lose weight while being extremely healthy. Instead of taking the un-healthy route of losing weight which is by doing it quickly and incorrectly. When losing weight using either Bulimia or Anorexia, the bad side effects out way the benefits by far. What I mean is the results of weight loss doesn’t last and real ly doesn’t make you any healthier, it comes back as soon as you stop. Also the damage it does on your body long term is way too far of a risk in my book, and is not worth all the bad effects it has on the body.Really you are making yourself even worse when using an eating disorder to lose weight. So take the time to do it correctly you will be pleased with the results, and you will feel healthy on the inside just as much as the outside. References Http://www. bulimiasideeffects. com/ Http [Do not leave spaces around a slash mark] ://www. powerflexweb. com/contentListDetail. php? idDivision=04&nameDivision Http://search. proquest. com. ezproxy. apollolibrary. com/docview/225013542 Http://search. proquest. comezproxy. apollolibrary. com/docview/196547053

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The more effective question does make this distinction for students, therefore providing guidance concerning the task of analyzing. Thus, directive verbs must be carefully selected to clearly reflect the task required of students and to be aligned to intended outcomes. Similarly, the object of the directive verb must be carefully written. Just as it is important to select the right verb, it is important to delimit the scope of the object of that verb.As mentioned earlier, delimiting the scope of the task helps to avoid the robber of student responses containing ideas that were not meant to be assessed and the problem of extreme subjectivity when scoring responses. How to appropriately Limit the subject matter for a given essay question depends on different factors that require the teacher's subject matter expertise and the teacher's knowledge of what material was Introduced to the students In the course. Among other things, how to restrict the task can depend on the subcategories of the domain and how they relate to each other, and on what parts of the subject domain wereHow to Prepare Better Essay Questions – 26- emphasized in class. The following example illustrates the process of limiting the scope of the task for a given essay question. Example of an Evolving Essay Question that Becomes More Focused 1. Less focused essay question: Evaluate the Impact of the Industrial Revolution on England. 2. More focused Evaluate the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the family in England. 3. More focused the role of fathers In poor communities of England. 4.More focused the role of fathers in poor communities of England eased on whether or not the Industrial Revolution improved fathers' abilities to provide the material necessities of life and education and training for their children. 5. More focused their children. Explain how the role of a father as provider changed with the Industrial Revolution and whether or not the changes were an improvement for fathe rs striving to provide for In the examples above, five essay questions are provided. Example 1 has little structure.The directive verb is â€Å"evaluate† and the object of the verb is â€Å"the impact of he Industrial Revolution on England. † Very little guidance is given to students about the task of evaluating and the scope of the task. A student reading Example 1 may ask: a. The impact on what in England? The economy? Foreign trade? A particular group of people? B. Evaluate based on what criteria? The significance of the revolution? The quality of life in England? Progress in technological advancements? C. What exactly do you want me to do in my evaluation? How to Prepare Better Essay Questions – 27 –Example 2 delimits the task for students by specifying a particular unit of society in England affected by the Industrial Revolution (family). Example 3 is even more focused than example 2 because students are asked to focus on a subunit of the family (fat hers) and a specific community of families in England (poor communities). With Example 4, the task is delimited by giving students a criterion for evaluating the impact of the Industrial Revolution (whether or not fathers' abilities to provide for their children in two different ways improved because of the Industrial Revolution).

Dying a noble Death Essay

â€Å"Dying a noble death† Introduction            Death is inevitable and everyone must be ready to face death. The author of, â€Å"If we must die† makes use of different literary devices to describe death and to encourage people to be brave and not to fear death. People should not just die like hogs or dogs although human beings are far outnumbered by death, they must remain brave to face death when it comes. Death does not have shame, it gets whoever it wants and at the time it best things is right. Death is a coward since it cannot come to people when they know or when they expect. Analysis of the Poem            The poem by Mr. Claude McKay, â€Å"If we must die†, written to urge the black people to fight for their freedom against the oppressions of the whites, portrays different literary devices used to bring out the message of the poem to the reader (Charters, and Samuel, 896). The various devices used in the poem include allegory, rhyme, metaphor which involves animal imagery, as observed in various likes through the use of different words such as â€Å"hogs,† in line 1 and other words such as â€Å"hunted, † â€Å"penned,† which are found in line 2 (Charters, and Samuel, 896). Furthermore, the author uses words such as â€Å"mad and hungry dogs,† and â€Å"bark† found in line 3 of the poem, â€Å"monsters,† in line 7 and the word â€Å"cowardly pack† in line 13 to show animal imagery for the reader (Charters, and Samuel, 896).            The use of hyperbole is observed when the author writes the words, â€Å"If we must die, let it not be like hogs† found in line 1 of the poem as well as, â€Å"and for their thousand blows deal one death-blow† in line 11 (Charters, and Samuel, 896). Furthermore, the author of the poem has used onomatopoeia which is observed through the word â€Å"bark† (Charters, and Samuel, 896). To make the reader more intrigued and part of the poem, the author poses a question that is rhetorical which is found in line 12 where he says â€Å"What though before us lies the open grave?†            The use of this question is intended to act as a reminder to the reader that death is inevitable and everyone will face death at one point in life and what do human beings face to lose when they die? The author of this poem uses most of these literary devices as a way of creating a sense of urgency so that the reader is always ready and aware of the happenings in life and about death (Charters, and Samuel, 896). The author has also written the poem using 14 lines in addition to the rhyme scheme which has been used of ababcdcdefefgg hence making it a Shakespeare sonnet (Charters, and Samuel, 896). The other literary device the author has used is repetition which is seen through words such as â€Å"If we must die† which has been repeated in the poem two times in line 1 and line 5. Conclusion            Every human being is bound to face death when their time comes. This does not mean that people should not be ready and do their best to fight against injustice and oppression which leads to the death of human beings. By using the different literary devices, the author of the poem encourages people to be brave against death and should not fear when they are faced with circumstances. References Charters, Ann, and Samuel B. Charters. Literature and Its Writers: A Compact Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010. Print. pp.896, Source document

Intro Communication Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Intro Communication - Term Paper Example Language plays a considerable role in creating meanings of words. In every language, there are different sets of words and the rules for constructing sentences. Those rules also play their role in creating meanings of the sentences. For example, English-speaking people cannot understand the meanings of the words, which belong to some other language, such as, French language or Spanish language. They need to find the meanings of those words in their own language in order to understand those words. There is a very strong relationship between meanings and language. A person can understand the meanings of only those words, which belong either to his/her mother language or to a language to which the person is familiar. For effective communication to take place, the role of understandable language is very important. A person needs to have complete understanding of the language, which is to be used for communication. When scholars refer to language use as polysemous, they are actually referring to the use of those words, which have different meanings in different languages. Every language has its own set of vocabulary and standards, which play an important role in distinguishing the meanings of the words used in one language from their meanings in other languages. Understanding of polysemy is very important for effective communication to take place in real life situations (Alberts, Nakayama, and Martin). The reason is that there exist many words in almost every language, which have more than one meaning. So in order to know the real meaning of what the other person is speaking, the ability to distinguish between different meanings of the same words is very important. Some words have same spellings but produce different meanings. For example, an English word ‘bat’ has two meanings, which include a stick used to play cricket and an animal. Similarly, the word ‘pupil’ also has two

Does the modern day target driven fire and rescue service need better Essay

Does the modern day target driven fire and rescue service need better management or does leadership provide the solution - Essay Example Several theories are explained in detail and related to the FRS to gauge which theory bets applies for the improvement of the operational system. Among these theories are trait, behavioral, contingency, constellation, participative, management, relationship, path-goal theory, action-centered leadership and the leadership grid. These theories prove that some of them are not applicable while some are in the given situation the analysis and discussion point out that management by objective can only be successful when there is leadership and thus both have to be implemented simultaneously. Towards the end recommendations have been given as to how the leadership can be improved with the goal oriented management. the private sector today is undergoing immense change with downsizing and greater work responsibility in their management systems. This according to Grint (2005) is because the people expect more for less and the same expectation has paved its way into the public sectors also where the people expect organizations like the fire department to provide more from the limited resources. To fulfill this demand, the fire departments have been undergoing drastic changes. This as George (2003) explains has become essential in order to be efficient and competitive in the market place. To suffice the demand of the people, and be according to the way the people want the department to be, the government has realized that the management system has to be adjusted so that the changing needs of the people may be met. At the same time, adds Taylor (2009) with the recession, the costs are increasing, people are paying fewer taxes and thus the fire department has a lower budget to work with and therefor e it requires to be more efficient and to maximize the use of its resources. The fire department has always been managed with the rank-based management system. However, the government wants to change

Early Childhood Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Early Childhood Development - Essay Example at in preschool days between birth and age 5, most of the child development happens through family inputs and all children feel pride in their family members and that pride will decide about how the child thinks about herself. The development of child happens in an orderly manner, for example, crawling happens before walking. Though learning period differs child to child but usually it follows a definite order or pattern. Physical development follows a certain and set pattern. Large muscles in legs and arms grow first and then small muscles in the hands and fingers grow. The act of walking precedes the act of drawing. Development process is initiated from the head to the toes. How to keep head straight is learned by the child first before learning other processes such as crawling on stomach or on knees (Cherry, 2012). Large muscles in the arms and legs that promote the activity of walking, running, lifting, riding fall in this category. Proper nutrition and environment play a crucial part in the development of these activities (Goodheart-Willcox 2012, p.71). Small muscles of the fingers or hands that are used to hold, grasp or related activities fall in this category. Good physical growth leads to the healthy development of other faculties namely cognitive and emotional (Goodheart-Willcox 2012, p.71). Physical activities such as running, jumping, cycling on extended basis will help strengthen muscles. Strong and powerful body muscles not only increases the work stamina but safeguard the children from illness. This also helps forming a healthy social and emotional relationship with colleagues and a positive view point about life. Physical growth is accompanied by cognitive growth. Cognitive abilities such as reasoning, thinking, logic, memory, recognizing continue to grow side by side. Jean Piaget made a pioneering research on the child psychology and their learning abilities. According to him, children are as intelligent as adults. He listed some of the basic

Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Research Paper Example The energy from a rubber band for moving an object can make for a great idea. The idea behind using the rubber band is that the rubber band stores energy while being stretched and then while released can provide energy to make something â€Å"go†. One can find the amount of energy a rubber band has by studying the rubber band while it is at rest. This works by allowing the rubber band to first rest. Once the rubber band is at rest it can be stretched. The stretching of the rubber band stores energy. Once the stretched rubber band is released it releases energy as it returns back to its pre stretched state. The energy released from the rubber band can provide enough force to power an object with wheels. If the weight is light enough for the elasticity of the rubber band, the object will move. It is important to make sure the strength of the rubber band is suitable for the object. The rubber band has to be strong enough to release enough energy to move the object. Tests can help indicate which rubber band is strong enough for the object. When the rubber band is twisted instead of stretched it can store more energy. The rubber band once twisted has double the strength. As the rubber band untwists itself it can release much energy.

Law versus Morality as Regulators of Conduct Essay

Law versus Morality as Regulators of Conduct - Essay Example However, individuals tend to overlook the moral aspect of various laws, and thereby break some laws. In our instance, an individual has the freedom to choose from breaking the law, owing to the lack of supervision or strictly adhere to the law, even on condition that breaking the law would not harm any individual. As such, failure to follow traffic rules in such an instance would make an individual duplicate that habit in another instance and this may compel such an individual into unwarranted litigation.   Breaking the law in such instances in critical conditions such as saving the life of an individual in serious health challenges may be morally allowable. However, since it is evident that such an individual is not in such a critical hurry, it would be unjustifiable to break the law.   Besides, individual instincts have a significant influence on our behaviors and the way individuals conduct themselves in conditions where there is no supervision (Shavell, 2002). As such the human instincts may make an individual feel guilty, owing to such incidences. As such, to omit such guilt, it will be advisable to stop and follow the rules. â€Æ'

The Decline of Napoleon Bonaparte Research Paper

The Decline of Napoleon Bonaparte - Research Paper Example He willingly served during French Revolution while only few trained French officer did. With nationalistic uprising in Corsica, Napoleon and his family had to flee to France since they were pro-French and Corsican nationalists had won. He became prominent during the siege of Toulon for his performance while serving in artillery. Later, his career rose meteorically. Probably one of the very first and greatest mistakes of Napoleon was that he consistently placed personal interest ahead of everything. He redesigned a heredity aristocracy in which he was the head and his immediate family was leading nobles. Moreover, he awarded states and kingdoms to his brothers and brother-in-laws and alienated France’s strongest ally, Spain. With his disposition of Spanish king, Spain rebelled and became an ally with Britain. With his continuous conquest, Napoleon solely controlled Europe by 1806, except Britain. When both the powers couldn’t beat each other, they started an economic war fare. Through Continental System, Napoleon tried to chock British trade, but both neutrals and allies ignored these sanctions at every opportunity they found. Napoleon’s insistence on ensuring French authority at any cost led to his invasion of Russia in 1812 that resulted in his eventual downfall.1 Despite his greatness and genius leadership, Napoleon shaped his reign for failure through flaws in his generalship that led to his consequential downfall. By 1805, Napoleon became the supreme warlord and head of state. His perception of strategy was unconventional,2 as Joly de Maizeroy states, â€Å"Strategy†¦combines times, places, means, various interests, and consider all†¦ [Tactics] reduces easily to firm rules, because it is entirely geometrical like fortification.†3 In order to achieve strategic objectives, the use of diverse resources, such as, diplomacy, economic power, information war, and military power are not very

Evaluation of Barclays Bank in India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Evaluation of Barclays Bank in India - Essay Example After the deregulation and reformation initiatives taken by the Ministry of Finance and the Reserve Bank of India for improving the structure of Indian banking Industry, the banks in India are performing better in comparison of other developing nations. Enhancing economic condition of Indian people is another key factor for the success of Indian Banking Industry and other macro-economic factors are also favourable for growth of Indian banking sector. However, due to dominance of Indian domestic banks, Barclays have wisely selected its target market i.e. the HNI and HRI clients. Besides, it is also trying to offer world class services to position itself as a leading global bank. The process of globalisation has influenced the entire process of human activities and globalisation of trade and business in one of the most significant instance for global economies. It has also given birth to the global banking sectors as many banks from developed countries are trying to enter in the emerging nations like China and India. The growing economic stability and increasing disposable income of India, many multinational companies including banks have entered in this market and these MNC banks are also experiencing a rapid growth in Indian market (Arasu, 2008, p.274). This paper will attempt to present an evaluation of Barclays Bank, a leading global bank for its Indian market business. The primary objective this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of Barclays in India using multiple analytical strategic tools. Barclays bank is basically a UK-based multinational bank established in more than 330 years ago, and for market expansion, it has also entered into the most of emerging and developed countries like Middle East, U.S.A., Asian countries, European countries (Barclays-a, 2011). Barclays bank entered into the Indian financial market during 1970s and since then, it has experienced tremendous growth and success. In Indian market it offers retail as well as commercial banking services catering more than 400,000 customers and clients. It has opened its multiple banking units in most of Indian cities.  

Benchmarking - Marketing assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Benchmarking - Marketing assignment - Essay Example The set standards for the classification of this type of coffee suggests that it can only grow at certain height and therefore the brand as such has to meet certain criteria in order to be categorized as blue mountain coffee. There are two important reasons as to why the Blue Mountain Coffee became the leading coffee brands in the world. First is the overall quality of the coffee which is relatively superior to other brands of coffee whereas secondly, strict quality controls and protection has been ensured in order to make the brand an exclusive brand. These characteristics of the product therefore made it one of the most acceptable coffee brands in the world. Jamaica’s Blue Mountain Coffee is considered as the most controversial coffee brands in the world. It is also however, one of the premium brands of coffee due to its overall aroma, flavor as well as acidity and other qualities. It is however, argued that overproduction and changes in environment in recent years has resulted into the decline in the overall quality of the coffee. (Flock)2 Jamaica’s Blue Mountain Coffee shot to the prominence during 1960’s and 1970’s when it was considered as the best coffee in the world. It takes around seven years to mature and contains less caffeine as compared to other commercially produced brands of coffee. The history of Blue Mountain Coffee suggests that it was introduced in the region by Sir Nicholas Lawes during 1728. However, gradually, it spread to other parts of the Blue Mountain Area and as such was widely cultivated and exported. 3During first half of 20th Century, the overall quality of the coffee deteriorated thus resulting into significant reduction in exports of the brand from Jamaica. However, in 1948 Coffee Industry Regulation Act was passed in order to promote the industry as well as the social and economic life of those who are involved in the cultivation of the coffee. It is

The History of African Americans Essay Example for Free

The History of African Americans Essay Jewish people had the horrific era ordeal of the Holocaust, Native Americans had to deal with the displacement of their people which lead to death, starvation and exposure to diseases while in en route to other locations. However one could suggest that African Americans had an extremely rough time, and till this day continue to have a rough time fighting for equality in all things. This is to not downplay the horrific, and devastating things that happened to other ethnicities, but despite the unfairness, the injustice, the inequality, African Americans have always found a way to rise to the occasion and still find some gleam of hope that one day things will be fair. African Americans have endured countless hardships, countless set-backs, and sometimes a seemingly never ending battle. Despite the way the United States have treated blacks from the time they brought slaves over to America on their ships, to this day in age, black people have not given up hope that one day all, especially African Americans will one day be treated equally. This purpose of this paper is to enlighten the accomplishments of the African American race as an whole, and will outline the many trials and tribulations that African Americans have gone through, the many contributions they have made, as well as the relentless efforts blacks have made to not turn its back on the United States, despite the country many of times turning its back, or more-so looking the other way while morally wrong events took place, despite the fact that it seemed oh so many times that they took three steps forward only to be knocked back two. Nonetheless they still prevailed and continuously paving ways and making things better for the next generation making harsh sacrifices, even to the extent of death. Immediately after the Civil War ended and Congress passing the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery in 1865, no more than a year later former Confederate states started passing the so-called â€Å"Black Codes†. What this basically meant was that blacks were now allowed to legally be married, own property, and also have a limited access to the courts, and by limited it meant only when a white person was not being testified against. They could not serve in state militias or on juries, vote, or even start a job without having the consent of a previous employer. They also came up with harsh laws for things that were beyond control such as making it a crime for being unemployed or making trivial offenses, handled on a felony level or with harsher sentences. It basically re-enslaved black people in another fashion by requiring blacks to sign yearly labor contracts, and if refused they risked being arrested and fined or typically forcing them into unpaid labor. (Black Codes , 2013) In 1867 five all black colleges were founded: Howard University, Morgan State College, Talladega College, St. Augustine’s College, and Johnson C Smith College. These schools were actually established 26 years before the end of slavery. Some may ask why were these schools still needed in the first place, or still needed after schools were desegregated in 1954. Well the answer to that question is one of many. For one we must examine this from a realistic angle, at that point in time education amongst African Americans was not encouraged by many whites during that time. Remember it was about 87 years between the time black colleges began existing and schools becoming desegregated. So one can only assume that there were many things done to discourage blacks from being educated such as making laws, and giving harsh punishments, burning down schools, or even extending to death, if discovered that one could read and was educated. Originally starting out the purpose of black colleges were simply for one to teach others to become teachers, however it lead to being the foundation of many inventors, educators, CEO’s, politicians, activists, entrepreneurs, scientist, etc. People such as Oprah Winfrey, Thurgood Marshall, Martin Luther King Jr, Langston Hughes, Jesse Jackson, Spike Lee, and the list could literally go on and on. HBCU’s gave African Americans a sense of pride, dignity, and respect. It helped lead to black people being able to achieve the dreams, that they saw their white counterparts achieving. As a matter of fact during the 80’s and early 90’s it was actually deemed cool to wear HBCU paraphernalia, and be college graduates. People such as Debbie Allen, Bill Cosby, and Spike Lee, promoted the education of African Americans through TV shows and movies, such as Spike Lee’s â€Å"School Daze†, and also on The Cosby show, as well as the spin-off of it entitled â€Å"A Different World†. Which basically showcased the college life of black students, and it gave insight to show others that there are people who look just like them who goes to college. (Coleman C, 2013) After the Civil War in 1865, African Americans began feeling liberated, and they began seeking the same kind of lifestyles they observed their white counter-parts having, such as education, good paying jobs etc. The 20th century â€Å"gave birth to a cultural revolution, the era coined the â€Å"Harlem Renaissance had earned its status as â€Å"the capital of black America†. (Williams, 2013)The existence of organizations such as the NAACP, The National Urban League, and individuals such as Marcus Garvey, African Americans were free to do what they pleased; they still searched for their identity, their â€Å"piece of the pie†. (AE, 2013) In 1931 a case that included nine African American males and two white girls, showcased the injustice in the law when it contained African Americans. The Scottsboro Tragedy is the story of 9 young black males who hopped a train in hopes of finding work, but the only thing they ended up finding was a whole lot of trouble. These nine young men were accused of raped by a 17, and 21 year old white woman. Not that it was anything new to black people, but it was a landmark case that brought to light how the justice system in America differed when the accused are African Americans. This case highlighted how no facts, no evidence, or any proof was used. These young men simply were guilty with no ability to be proven innocent. Keep in mind that the most these boys could have done was hoboing through the train, and possibly could have gotten into a altercation with the white boys and perhaps have gotten the better of them. So for them to be accused of such a heinous crime as rape, showed just how much white people despised of black people. The majority of these young men would end up being falsely imprisoned, having the label of rapist pinned to their name, and go through three different trials that kept proving how the justice system was unfair, especially how one of the white girls recanted her story admitting that she fabricated everything and none of the young black men had ever touched her. But of course in those times it honestly did not matter, because they didn’t have access to fair trial, proper representation, and neither did the whole â€Å"innocent until proven guilty rule† apply to them. (Group, Scottsboro: An American tragedy, 2001) For many years to come America, especially black America would see time and time again how race would play a major factor in the laws and more-so of who which laws apply to whom. In the past years alone we have seen numerous cases of black men being accused of rape, when the evidence barely matched up, or if there were any evidence at all led to the unfar conviction of many black men who either spend many years behind bars for crimes they did not commit, only to be released because the DNA was not a match. Or the many black men who are beaten or killed by cops, specifically white cops, and the ruling comes back not guilt, and the legal systems tells people that it is ok for the police to shoot a unarmed main 50 times, when all he was doing was reaching for his wallet. Despite the inequality, the unfairness, and lack of opportunities in America towards African Americans, that did not change the fact that black Americans felt the need to not only prove they were intellectually capable of the task that the military needed but also, to show patriotism of the African American race. Although it seems ironic how blacks were fighting to keep the freedom for a country where they struggled to have the basic freedoms of others such as equal opportunities when it came to education, job opportunities and basic respect from other individuals. (Group, 2002). The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of African American pilots who were at first seemed to be nothing more than the military carrying out orders to have a group of educated black pilots, but they soon became one of the main forces behind winning the war with their bombing escorts. The very interesting thing about these men was that all they wanted to do was to prove that they were just as intelligent, educated, and has just as much tenacity as the white men. But they were constantly harassed not only outside the military but also inside the military as well. They were given missions that to be quite honest were nothing that proved they were capable of flying an aircraft. But as stated previously even after all their accomplishments and them fighting to keep the freedom of America, they still were treated as second or even third rate citizens, they were treated as if they never made contributions. 1945 marked the beginning of African Americans being able to not only express themselves, but keep current with events that affect s them, and topics that were directed toward black people. Ebony magazine was established and it was and still is a monthly magazine. The magazine was catered to African Americans, and it discussed health, fitness, finances, love, and simply African Americans live and achievements. The reason why this magazine was and still is so pertinent to the black culture because the magazine is catered to African Americans, because it gave black people a voice, it gave a voice that was relevant to people of color, and the topics were pertinent to black people has a whole. Ebony magazine paved the way for future magazines such as Jet, Essence, Black Enterprise etc. (Shahid, 2013) Malcolm X became one of the most influential people during the civil rights era, he was one of the first individuals to rejects the nonviolent civil-rights movement and integration, and became a champion of African American separatism and black pride (Davis, 2013). Now depending on who you ask, some may say X was one of the pioneers and his methods were necessary, and others may say he was nothing more than a trouble maker. But after careful research Malcolm X was a great man and it was not that he condoned violence, he condoned people standing up for themselves. He only was stating facts and the facts were the non-approach was not achieving much, and in the meantime black people were being killed in the masses because they weren’t fighting back. A man who seemed to be the opposite of Malcolm X, well in approach to the issue of direction of dealing with the Civil rights of African Americans. Martin Luther King Jr, became one of the most influential pioneers and voices of the civil rights movement. His nonviolence approach was both highly criticized as well as commended. (laureates, 2013) King worked diligently to establish racial equality, with his many sit-ins, protest and marches. He achieved many accomplishments in his lifetime, but that of course did not come without criticism because of his non-violent approaches, some people felt that King was furthering the slow progress of black people because they were not standing up for themselves. However his motive was the whole â€Å"kill them kindness† approach because he wanted to show that they weren’t just angry black people who wanted to fight, but he wanted people to understand what they were fighting for. In 1966 Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seales founded the Black Panther Party, a radical black power group, in Oakland, California. This was an organization was like no other and for those who had hate and animosity towards black people, and were considering starting trouble were in for a rude awakening. Because this group of individuals were organized, and as ironic as it may sound they established themselves as protection of the neighborhoods because of the police brutality that existed. And although they developed a reputation for militant rhetoric and clashes with the police. This was still an important time for African Americans because it gave the fire to stand up for themselves and basically fight fire with fire so to speak. The organization was short lived, and as certain research shows that certain federal, state, and local officials went through great lengths to discredit and destroy the organization, including but not limited to assassinations. African Americans have contributed a lot to not only this world but especially to the United States. As a whole they have jumped over hurdle after hurdle, they have continuously bounced back after many set-backs, and when so called rules were set into place they made it their business to break down barriers. Black people have accomplished a lot of things and despite the United States always backing them up, or them moving extremely slow to make progress, African Americans are still striving to make things equal and fair. But with all that said despite their being a African American President in office black people are still a ways away from the â€Å"promise land†. Because African Americans are still unfairly targeted by police, there is still gaps when it comes to getting loans, the rates on these homes, lack of good education, and fairness in jobs and pay. But no one can argue the fact that African Americans have made many contributions to the United States, despite the U. S. not always showing gratitude. Bibliography (n. d. ). Black Codes . (2013, April 13). Retrieved from The History Channel website. : http://www. history. com/topics/black-codes. AE, T. (2013, April 13). Harlem Renaissance. Retrieved from The Biography Channel website: http://www. biography. com/tv/classroom/harlem-renaissance#tgm Coleman C, D. (2013, http://hbcuconnect. com/history. shtml 14). The History of Historically Black Colleges Universites. Retrieved from HBCU Connect: http://hbcuconnect. com/history. shtml Davis, O. (2013, April 14). Malcolm X about bio. Retrieved from Malcolm X Biography: http://www. malcolmx. com/about/bio. html Group, F. M. (Director). (2001). Scottsboro: An American tragedy [Motion Picture]. Group, F. M. (Director). (2002). The Tuskegee airmen: They fought two wars [Motion Picture]. laureates. (2013, April 13). nobel prizes. Retrieved from Nobel Prize org: http://www. nobelprize. org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1964/king-bio. html Shahid, S. (2013, April 14). 65 Years Ago in News History: The Birth of Ebony Magazine. Retrieved from newseum: http://www. newseum. org/news/2010/10/65-years-ago-in-news-history-the-birth-of-ebony-magazine. html Williams, A. (2013, April 14). Harlem Renaissance. Retrieved from In Academic World Book. : http://www. worldbookonline. com/academic/article? id=ar246340.

The History Of Public Relations Worldwide Media Essay

The History Of Public Relations Worldwide Media Essay Public Relations have come a long way all around the world (Lee Johnson, 2005). The term public relations was first used by Dorman Eaton in 1882 (Smith, 2010), when he addressed Yale Law school graduates on the The Public Relations of the legal profession. He used the term to refer to an organisations role in serving the public welfare. But actually, public relations go back even further. It is believed that it has existed in the Antiquity. The Greeks called it semantikos meaning semantics which they defined as how to make people believe things and do things. Another example of public relations is in the Ancient Rome when Julius Caesar wrote the first campaign biography, to convince the Roman he would make the best head of state. Certainly during the early of the twentieth century public relations became more significant. In fact, in 1903 Ivy Lee distinguished himself as the first public relations counselor. Wikipedia states that he is among the founding fathers of public relations. He was a counselor to governments and railroads. One of his famous clients was D.Rockefeller (Smith, 2010). Lee believed that public relations should be about: Telling the truth Providing accurate fact The public relations director must have access to top management and must be able to influence decisions Another founding father that marked the history of Public relations is Edward Bernays, student and nephew of Sigmund Freud ( Wikipedia).In 1918, he advised the President of Czechoslovakia to announce Independence on a Monday rather than on a Sunday, to get maximum press coverage. In 1923, Bernays published Crystallizing Public Opinion, (Smith, 2010) in which he established several public relations principles. He said that public relations had these functions include: To interpret the client to the public, which means promoting the client To interpret the public to the client, which means operating the company in such a way as to gain the approval of the public He also advised public relations professionals to seek out group leaders and other key communicators (opinion leaders), who would be able to pass along ideas to other members of the public. Other Bernays concepts were: Public relations is a public service It should promote new ideas and progress Public relations should build a public conscience Some other public relation pioneers are Elmer Davis, who was a former journalist during World War 2. He coordinated public information from the military and also mobilized public support for the war effort in order to decrease the enemys moral. Pendleton Dudhey was also a pioneer of public relations consultant. In 1909, he opened an agency. He emphasized a lot of the public information model of public relations (Smith, 2010) Later in 1957, Anne Willian Wheaton became the associate press secretary to American President Dwight Eisenhower. Her appointment called attention on the growing role of women in public relations (Smith, 2010). Definition of Public Relations Public relations is defined as being aspect of communications that involves promoting a desirable image for a person or group seeking public attention in the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. It also states that the purpose of Public relations is to generate good news, be cautious about what to print or to broadcast, to forestall bad news and analyse the situation, minimize the damage and provide the media with information in moments of crisis. The Barrons Marketing Dictionarys definition goes further by adding that apart from seeking understanding, Public relations also seek acceptance from the public and is about building a sympathetic relationship with the latter, and that it is more concerned about issues rather than products or services. The Marketing Dictionary also states that employees, investors, voters are not to be forgotten when building relationships. Grunig and Hunt support these statements by saying that PR is the management of communication between an organization and the public. Rubel (2007), further elaborates that some of the PR activities are to speak at conferences, to deal with the media, to defend the reputation of an organization, to communicate to the employees, and to engage in social media. Phillips and Young (2009), agree with the fact that the engagement in social media forms part of Public relations since they say that communication tools like personal computers, mobile phones, video game consoles can be used for interactive communication and can thus be used for Interactive Public Relations. In contrast to these statements, the World Assembly of Public Relations Associations perceives PR as an art and a social-science which analyse trends, forecast their consequences, provide organizational leaders with advice, and implement planned programs of action which will be beneficial to the organization and the public. Objectives of Public relations As per the statement in the Reference of Business, to bring forth, sustain and defend the image and reputation of a company, are some of the main objectives of Public relations. It also claims that a companys reputation does have an effect on the consumers buying behaviour and consequently affects the sales and revenue. Other goals which it puts forward are, to generate relationships with the employees, the stockholders and investors, the media and the community. Furthermore, there is the aspect of providing the publics with information about a company or its new legislations, or even educating them about the uses of a product. These points are elaborated in knowthis.com where it is said that PR tools such as newsletters, websites and so on can be used to educate the audiences about products and services and that the objective of Public relations can also be to reinforce a brand by building positive relationships with the publics and enhance the image of the company, because this can prove to be helpful especially in moments of crises. Moreover, it supports the idea that Public relations can help increase sales by stating that a good news release can stimulate demand, thus increasing sales. Advantages of Public relations When it comes to the advantages of Public relations, it can be noticed that credibility is a recurrent word. In an article on Drypen, it is said that one of the advantages of Public relations is that it nurtures credibility, unlike advertising. Which implies that the publics are apt to believe in a news release published in the newspaper or in a magazine but, on the other hand, will be quite sceptical about the advertisement of a product in the newspaper or in a magazine. On top of that, PR messages are viewed as news providing detailed information about a product and are more likely to attract the audiences attention. It is also mentioned that Public relations cost much less than advertising and can be more effective, in the sense that, it can be used to reach small market segments, especially for companies with financial problems. Another advantage is that it helps an organization establish a good image which can be of great help to the latter in case of crisis. Knowthis.com furthe r adds that it may happen that other media pick up an article about a company and contributes in spreading the news to different locations. Disadvantages of Public relations One of the disadvantages stated on TutorsOnNet.com is that there may be distortion of information, in the sense that, the company may be deceived with the end result due to the fact that some information written in the draft have been modified in order to suit the news story and other features in the newspaper. Another disadvantage is that, there is the possibility of the public not being interested in the news release because of some other, more serious news such as war, disasters, crime and so on. On knowthis.com, it is also mentioned that, PR campaigns may not necessarily bring high return on promotional expense, especially if the news media does not consider it important or worth running a story brought forth by a company. Moreover, the fact that the impact of traditional news outlets is decreasing, professionals in the Public relations field are compelled to look for new means to attain the target markets. Advantages of In-House Public relations In a research on the Public relations industry, it is said that, some advantages of in-house PR are that it operates on a full-time basis. Thus the PR officer and other staffs in the PR department are able to dedicate much time working on a PR campaign unlike agencies which have to deal with different clients. Another advantage is that the PR officer can be quickly informed about changes or any other information regarding Public relations since the latter is an integral part of the organization. Moreover, there is the aspect of value for money, in the sense that, the PRO can easily have access to research materials, videos, photographic library of the company, which can be used when working on the house journal or even when dealing with the media, thus working economically. PR department initially cost a lot as compared with consultancy fees, but in the long term, it is greater value for money. Disadvantages of In-House Public relations As stated in the study on the Public relations industry, one of the main disadvantages of in-house PR is the lack of impartiality, training and experience. In an article on issuesinimc.wikispaces.com, it is said that, when it comes to in-house PR, there is the risk of the PR manager bringing some elements of bias in favour of the company. It also adds that it is difficult for managers to train employees from different branches if ever a company has many branches, thus resulting in lack of training. According to Jefkins (1993), PR managers being considered as experts in their field, consequently possess a limited public relations experience, that is, they do not have much knowledge of the general public relations practices. Advantages of Public relations Consultancy On careerride.com, it is said that, one of the advantages of PR consultancy is that it cost less. In addition to that, PR consultancy organizations have a wider experience of the general public relations practices and on top of that, they are more familiar with the media and have good media relations, issuesinimc.wikispaces.com. The article on the Public relations industry also includes the fact that external PR consultancy being an independent organization, will not bring elements of bias. Disadvantages of Public relations Consultancy The disadvantage which is stated on careerride.com is that PR agencies deal with several different clients and not only one client and is therefore not available full time. They may also find it difficult to cope with the companys internal culture. In the Public relations industry study, the disadvantage which is stated is the lack of relationship intimacy and that they have to be loyal to different companies at the same time. The article on issueinimc.wikispaces.com, also include the issue of remoteness of the agency from the company. Definition of Litigation PR Litigation public relations  is the management of the announcement process  during the course of any legal dispute so as to influence the outcome or its impact on the clients overall  reputation (Haggerty, 2003). Background study Petitioners and prosecutors have extensively used mass media to get their part of the story out to the public, but the formal practice of litigation PR, a sub-specialty of crisis communication, first appeared in the early 1980s. Since then, the need for litigation PR has grown immensely as media exposure of court cases and the law has increased. Most parties to a lawsuit have important interests that expand beyond legal concerns. Negative publicity about a litigant can cause damage to an individuals reputation that a courtroom win years later may not salvage. Thus, parties to cases, whether civil or criminal, cannot disregard the impact of negative publicity on public opinion (Reber, Gower, Robinson, 2006). Basic Concepts of Litigation Public Relations- The First Concept-Litigation PR  is to influence the outcome of the court case by encouraging early or favorable arrangement or by pressuring the tribunal into bringing lesser or no chargers (Haggerty, 2003). The Second Concept-Litigation PR  is to protect the clients reputation before and during the trail. In this regard, litigation PR is similar to reputation management. Reputation management is about managing public opinion of an organization or individual. It is about attitude toward the individual and not knowledge itself. An essential aspect of reputation management is influencing attitude about the individual and corporation, which can encourage positive foundation to the benefit of the organization (Haywood, 2002). Litigation PR and Media Coverage Litigation PR on the part of defendants is needed, especially in high-profile cases because the media have unnatural bias in favor of plaintiffs and prosecutors. When allegations are made public, the media tend to cast the lawsuit in terms of victim versus villain. News stories regularly lead with the plaintiff or prosecutors allegations. If the defendants responses are included at all, they appear well into the story. Thus, the defendant is forced on the defensive from the outset. In such situation, working with the media to create more balanced, accurate, and less sensational coverage of a lawsuit is necessary element in defending high profile defendants (Hantler, Schwartz, Goldberg, 2004, p.  8). Fitzpatricks Six Objectives of Litigation Public Relations 1. Counteracting negative publicity. 2. Making a clients viewpoint known. 3. Ensuring balanced media coverage. 4. Helping the media and the public understand complex legal issues. 5. Defusing a hostile environment. 6. Helping resolve the conflict (Fitzpatrick, 1996). To achieve those objectives, the first step is to establish reliability with the media as an information source. The next step is to manage the flow of information to the media so that the right message gets out. The third step is to develop a message that supports the clients position and get that message out to the media and the public (Fitzpatrick, 1996, Haggerty, 2003, Reber, Gower, Robinson, 2006). Differences between Litigation PR and Other PR Practices Litigation PR is highly dependent on the media. Although the practice of PR involves far more than just mediated communication, litigation PR remains dependent on the media. It is because of the medias increased attention to lawsuits that litigation PR has become a necessity for many high profile clients (Gibson, 1998). Because typical public relations campaign strategies and tactics may not be appropriate and may even be harmful at certain times during a lawsuit, the legal tactic must take procedure (Schweitzer, 2003). Litigation PR is more regulated than regular public relations because of the potential to prejudice the legal process (Gibson, 1998). Litigation PR is directed with the emphasis of one-way, irregular communication. Because the law is adversarial in nature, creating a win-lose situation, the goal of litigation PR is to strengthen the legal strategy and theory of the case to make sure a win and to diminish damage to the organizations credibility and reputation (Reber, Gower, Robinson, 2006). Public Relations (PR) Strategies Public Relations involve an array of programs designed to maintain or augment a companys image and the products and services it offers. Successful implementation of an effective public relations strategy can be a vital element to a marketing plan (Berry and Wilson, 2000). In public relations practice, strategy typically refers to the overall concept, approach, or general plan for the program designed to achieve a goal (Cutlip, 2006). A public relations (PR) strategy may play a key role in an organizations promotional strategy. A planned approach to leveraging public relations opportunities can be just as important as advertising and sales promotions (Berry and Wilson, 2000). According to Lages and Simkin (2003), plans give focus and direction to every strategy. Smith (2008) highlighted the point that careful planning leads to programs that are proactive and preventative, rather than to activities that are merely reactive and remedial. So, in order to ensure the success of Strategic Public Relations Planning, Cutlip et al (2003) proposed the four-step problem solving process. PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS Four-step Process Strategic Planning Steps and Program Outline ______________________________________________________________________________ Defining the Problem 1. The Problem, Concern, or Opportunity Whats happening now? 2. Situation Analysis (Internal and External) What positive and negative forces are operating? Who is involved and/or affected? How are they involved and/or affected? ______________________________________________________________________________ Planning and Programming 3. Program Goal What is the desired solution? 4. Target Publics Who-internal and external-must the program respond to, reach, and affect? 5. Objectives What must be achieved with each public to accomplish the program goal? ______________________________________________________________________________ Taking Action and Communicating 6. Action Strategies What changes must be made to achieve the outcomes stated in the objectives? 7. Communication Strategies What message content must be communicated to achieve the outcomes stated in the objectives? What media best deliver that content to the target publics? 8. Program Implementation Plans Who will be responsible for implementing each of the action and communication tactics? What is the sequence of events and the schedule? How much will the program cost? ______________________________________________________________________________ Evaluating the Program 9. Evaluation Plans How will the outcomes specified in the program goal and objectives be measured? 10. Feedback and Program Adjustment How will the results of the evaluations be reported to program managers and used to make program changes? Major Public Relations Tools According to Kotler and Armstrong (2007), there exist various tools that can be used in the practice of public relations. One of the major tools is news whereby PR professionals find or create favourable news about the company and its products or people. They argued that news stories can sometimes occur naturally, and at times the PR person can suggest events or activities that would create news. They mentioned that Speeches can also create product and company publicity and that increasingly, companies are giving talks and speeches at trade associations or meetings for building companys image. Another common PR tool is special events which ranges from news conferences, press tours, grand openings, star-studded spectaculars, or educational programs designed to reach and interest target publics (Kotler and Armstrong, 2007). Also, public relations people prepare written materials to reach and influence their target markets. These materials include annual reports, brochures, articles, and company newsletters and magazines. Audiovisual materials, such as films, slide-and-sound programs, DVDs, and online videos are being used increasingly as communication tools. Corporate identity materials can also help create corporate identity that the public immediately recognizes. Logos, stationery, brochures, signs, business forms, business cards, buildings, uniforms, and company cars and trucks all become marketing tools when they are attractive, distinctive, and memorable (Kotler and Armstrong, 2007). Trends in Public Relations Interactive public relations use internet technologies and tools such as search engine, Web 2.0 social bookmarking, new media relations and social media marketing to allow firms circulate information without relying only on conventional publications and communicate directly with the public, existing and potential customers. It is sometimes called social PR which comprises of a combination of search-optimizing press releases, creating social media releases through tools like Pitch Engine and blogger outreach to promote company news and announcements. Even though press releases were distributed online for more than a decade, its only in the last few years that tools and techniques for combining PR with social media have really emerged, and they continue to evolve. It incorporates all forms of communication and is not solely limited to online press releases and bloggers, but instead uses every element of building relationships while maintaining the significance of the spoken word. Social Media It is mostly talked trend in the public relations industry. PR professionals are communications specialists, and blogs, forums, online video and social networking offer the ability to communicate more affordably and efficiently than ever before. Social media channels give PR expert the possibility to gain access to consumer opinions and behavior. Online Press Releases Newsrooms Press release purpose is changing and it is written with keyword-rich content and distributed with the only aim of better optimizing sites for search engines. The formatting and functionality of press releases and online newsrooms are evolving to integrate social bookmarking, video, blogs, podcasts and RSS feeds. Social Bookmarking Social bookmarking is a method for Internet users to organize, store, manage and search for bookmarks of resources online. Basically the file is not shared but they are bookmarked to refer later on. Social bookmarking sites such as Digg, Del.icio.us and Reddit have changed the way PR consume and share news. Search Engine Optimisation Search engine optimisation has aim to guide and improve website rankings on search engines such as Google, Yahoo, or MSN Search. In order to optimise web pages, different methods can be used such as using keywords in the HTML coding, Meta and Title tags, and also Alt tags on images. Good design and easy navigation in the website also helps to optimise it for search engines. However it could be argued that there are some flaws with SEO. There is always the chance of getting too much business. A company with a highly successful website may find that business is moving faster than they can cope. With something such as pay per click advertising, it would be easy to turn off or remove the advertisements, but it wouldnt be as simple to remove a whole website in order to slow down sales. Social networking Social networks are websites that enable individuals to interact with one another via the internet. It allows its users to use this platform to gain interest from web users on a professional or social basis. These websites allow people to not only get to know one another but to also share Photos, music, view TV clips, messages and blogs. In this way Social networks are used by companies in order to promote their brands or products to the public or for general use and as a way of making friends. Examples of social networking platforms are Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, Foursquare, etc. These are all online tools companies can use to get more in touch with their customers, create a more personified brand image, and share information about the firm. Sending press releases. Though tied to PR for the past few decades, this is also used in marketing. Press releases are great ways to alert people of new things happening, and great ways to pitch the media. Having a blog. If companies would rather not pitch the media and communicate with their customers through this and social networking, blogs can be a great outlet for information sharing. Hosting forums, chats, chatrooms, etc. This is a means to provide a way for customers to contact you with complaints, concerns, questions, etc. Customers will talk about you anyways, and with the availability of places for them to do so, they have no reason not to. Being more personable. This can be hard to fake, so it takes actual effort, time, and energy. The company needs to utilize the tools above and actually be available and accessible. Going above and beyond expectations. This is something used in customer service, but in PR, you can do the same thing. Customers are used to companies doing the minimum to satisfy their needs, but satisfying and creating loyal customers are very different tasks. RSS Feeds RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feeds, is a family of web feed formats used to publish frequently updated works-such as blog entries, news headlines, audio, and video-in a standardized format. They are very efficient tool to monitor regularly updated online content, such as: blogs, news headlines, forum posts and podcasts. RSS feeds give PR specialist the ability to consume and filter massive amounts of information and news from mainstream and social media sites. Its reader checks the users subscribed feeds regularly for new work, downloads any updates that it finds, and provides a user interface to monitor and read the feeds. RSS allows users to avoid manually inspecting all of the websites they are interested in, and instead subscribe to websites such that all new content is pushed onto their browsers when it becomes available. PR 2.0 PR 2.0 makes use of a combination of social media tools that are available to communications expert to attain and better communicate directly with consumer audiences and influencers. Social Media is a way that allows audiences to drive the communication in their communities. PR expert are starting to incorporate PR 2.0 into their strategy and planning as an effective way to communicate directly to Web 2.0 audiences so as to raise awareness and increase brand awareness. Nowadays these tools are available to reach the audiences who want to control their own communication to know about different brands. Web 2.0 technology combined with an audiences desire to build and share content has transformed the PR industry. PR Podcasts, Vidcasts and Webcasts Podcasts, vidcasts and webcasts are three effective tools available to PR professional whose job is to get the company news to the targeted audiences. Podcasting involves recording to a digital file that can be distributed over the net using syndication feeds for playback on a computer, MP3 player or iPod. Vidcasting is a video-on-demand video clip delivered to computers and can be downloaded and watched at the viewers convenience. Webcasts differ from podcasts and vidcasts in that they can either be live or recorded. Webcasting can be thought of as broadcasting via the Internet.

Climate Change Will Affect Invertebrates And Vertebrates Environmental Sciences Essay

Climate Change Will Affect Invertebrates And Vertebrates Environmental Sciences Essay Global climate change is predicted to cause temperatures to increase by 1.4-5.8ËÅ ¡C by the year 2100. This will likely have a profound impact upon many land animals. Here, four animal groups were selected for review; amphibians, insects, polar bears and birds. Many species will most probably move further north, where conditions will be cooler. Changes in breeding will occur, with many species breeding earlier, as already demonstrated by amphibian and bird species. Higher temperatures are likely to benefit insects, causing higher metabolic rates and increasing their numbers. Alternatively, a warmer future for polar bears doesnt look promising. With rapid loss of sea-ice, many individuals are suffering, as obtaining food is becoming increasingly difficult. Predicting the likely impacts of climate change is complex as each species will be affected differently. Further research is needed to predict the impacts of rainfall patterns and extreme weather events upon the survival of lan d animals. Abstract 2 Global climate change is well under way, with global mean annual temperatures set to increase by 1.4-5.8ËÅ ¡C by the year 2100. This major environmental change has the ability to influence both species distribution and extinction rates. Here, four animal taxa were selected for review; amphibians, insects, polar bears (Ursus maritimus) and birds. Northern distribution shifts are likely to become increasingly common across all groups as species exploit new habitats and seek cooler conditions. Phenological changes will take place such as earlier breeding in amphibians and birds, though it is uncertain about what this will mean for their persistence. Climate-facilitated diseases may influence extinctions, such as Saprolegnia ferax, which causes mortality in amphibian embryos. Higher temperatures are likely to benefit insects, causing an increase in flight-dependent activities. Alternatively, a warmer future for polar bears doesnt look promising. With rapid loss of sea-ice, the body conditions of many individuals are declining, and desperate foraging strategies such as cannibalism have been reported. Predicting climate induced effects is complex as responses will be specie-specific and potential evolutionary adaptations need to be taken into account. Further research is needed to predict the impacts of precipitation and extreme weather events upon the fitness of terrestrial species. 1.0 Introduction Long term global climate change is currently at the forefront of scientific interest. Climatic variation is undoubtedly a natural process, but the balance of evidence available suggests that excessive human activity has been the dominant reason for the recently observed dramatic changes in climate (Telemeco et al, 2009). Records have shown that since the 1970s, global mean annual temperatures have increased significantly, rising by approximately 0.15ËÅ ¡C per decade (Beaumont and Hughes, 2002). It has been predicted that this trend will continue, and global mean annual temperatures are likely to have increased by 1.4-5.8 ËÅ ¡C by the year 2100 (op.cit). Some researchers believe that such temperature rises will be the largest anthropogenic disturbance ever placed upon natural ecosystems (Deutsch et al, 2008). Whilst this warming has received a great deal of attention, changes in precipitation patterns and the frequency of extreme weather events will accompany this temperatur e variation. These recently devised predictions are causing immense concern amongst scientists, because assuming that they are correct, the biodiversity across the globe will be altered significantly. Distribution, the geographical occurrence or range of an organism, is mostly controlled by climate, and therefore, it is anticipated that this will be notably affected in numerous species (Pearson and Dawson, 2003). Studies have shown that global climate change has already taken effect and has been the cause of numerous distribution shifts observed in a variety of organisms during the past 30 years (Thomas et al, 2004). A study carried out by Hitch and Leberg (2006) found that distributions of North American bird species were moving significantly further north, most probably as a result of increasing temperatures. The extent to which animals react to global climate change, whether it be through changing their distribution or reacting in others ways, will depend largely upon several fac tors. The first is the geographical location of the species and the second being the presence of particular biological traits. These traits are related to factors such as genetic make-up, ecology and life history stages, influencing an individuals vulnerability to climate change. Specific traits include dependence upon a particular microhabitat, dispersal limitation due to geographical barriers and low genetic diversity (Foden et al, 2008).Therefore, not all species will respond in similar ways, even when exposed to the same climatic conditions, meaning that the persistence of some species will be threatened more than others. Extinction, due to climate change, will be the likely reality for some species, and it has been estimated that 15-37% of terrestrial species will be committed to extinction by the year 2050 (Thomas et al, 2004). Research is currently very much centred on trying to identify those most at risk and looking for possible ways to reduce predicted extinction rates. Th ough much effort is being made, minimizing the emission of greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide, is the single ultimate action which could save a vast number of species (op.cit). The publication of a growing number of studies regarding extinction in relation to climate change is making humans increasingly aware of the vital actions that need to be taken in an attempt to conserve the earths biodiversity. 1.1 Aims The aim of this review is to evaluate how global climate change will affect the distribution and status of both terrestrial vertebrate and invertebrate species. Status is quite a broad term but in context of biology and hence this review, it primarily refers to conservation status; examining how likely the animal is to become extinct in the future. Predicting the status of an organism is complicated and requires information regarding various aspects of its ecology, such as its habitat, foraging strategy and breeding behaviour. Research concerning a variety of animal groups will be examined, so that a wide range of potential effects across the animal kingdom can be identified. Here, four taxonomic groupings have been selected for review, due to their high vulnerability to climate change and/or high environmental importance. These taxa are also heavily represented in the available literature. The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) has been focused on due to its rapidly changing ice habitat. Insects and amphibians were selected mainly due to their ectothermic nature and are therefore highly sensitive to temperature. Finally birds were chosen due to their close association with climate, especially in migratory species. Although not every animal class has been reviewed, it is hoped that this literature review can provide a balanced evaluation with regards to an area of science which is causing both increased social interest and concern at the present time. 2.0 Amphibians It is widely accepted that amphibian populations are declining dramatically around the globe, with an estimated 43% of the total species currently in decline (Lips et al, 2008). This has prompted a satisfactory number of studies, which have researched the possible factors responsible for amphibian reductions (Corn, 2005). Though climate change as a cause was considered relatively understudied in 2003, it has since received an increasing amount of attention (Carey and Alexander, 2003). Amphibians are terrestrial ectotherms, having life history stages which are very much sensitive to both environmental temperature and precipitation (op.cit). This suggests that they should be highly vulnerable to climate change, but past records have shown that existing amphibians have descended from ancestors that were able to cope with climatic extremes and variability (op.cit). Nevertheless, it still remains highly important to discover if, and how these animals will be affected by global climate cha nge in the future. Understanding links between amphibian distribution and climate change is essential for their conservation, though relatively few studies have investigated this. Girardello et al (2010) undertook a study in an attempt to discover the likely implications of climate change on the distribution of amphibians in Italy. It was confirmed that climate greatly affects species distribution and precipitation plays a crucial role in determining range shifts (op.cit). Negative predictions were made in that the distributions of many amphibian species could reduce considerably. Mediterranean species such as Rana temporaria and those found in mountain habitats are of a main concern, as it was found that their distributions could decrease, despite the fact they may well colonize new areas (op.cit). One of the reasons for this is that many species in these particular locations are highly climate specialised (op.cit). Therefore, any small changes in climate could prove to be damaging in terms of their distributions. Distribution reductions are not only predicted for species in Italy but for those in other countries too. It is expected that the golden striped salamander (Chioglossa lusitanica), native to Spain and Portugal, will constrict its distribution between the years 2050 and 2080 (Corn, 2005). Research regarding 42 amphibian species throughout Europe produced somewhat more promising conclusions. It was found that temperature predictions for 2050 are not likely to be a major threat to this group of animals, and it was also concluded that they can be expected to expand their distribution (ArauÃÅ' jo et al, 2006). This is due to the fact that the warming of northern European areas will create new habitats, which species can exploit (op.cit). However, this will only be possible if the ability to disperse is unlimited. (Figure 1 illustrates the predicted species extinctions with no dispersal/unlimited dispersal in Italy). The involvements of factors which prevent or reduce dispersal, such as habitat loss, will only decrease range size, possibly contributing to amphibian population declines in the future (op.cit). Figure 1 Projected amphibian species losses (no dispersal) and gains (unlimited dispersal) in Italy, Girardello et al (2010). Unfortunately, it appears likely that during the time leading up to 2050, habitats will be further fragmented and destroyed. This does, however, assist current conservation, indicating that to aid the persistence of amphibian species; both existing and potential habitats must be protected and managed in a way that will allow optimum dispersal. Given that the current conservation status of 32% of known amphibian species is either threatened or extinct, understanding their relationship with climate change is vitally necessary (http://www.iucnredlist.org/ initiatives/ amphibians/ analysis). There are various ways in which a changing climate could affect the status of amphibian species, through both direct and indirect methods. For climate to have a direct negative effect, the levels of temperature, moisture and UVB (ultraviolet-b) radiation would need to exceed the lethal limit of a given species (Carey Alexander, 2003). Although recent studies have shown a correlation between amphibia n declines and climate change, there has been little evidence to suggest that amphibians have been subjected to lethal levels of environmental variables (op.cit; Corn, 2005). There are a number of ways in which climate change could indirectly affect individuals. Successful breeding is essential to ensure the survival of any species. It has been suggested that climate change could interfere with reproduction by causing breeding to occur earlier. Tryjanowski et al (2003) found that the first spawning dates of R.temporaria and Bufo bufo shifted 8-9 days earlier between 1978 and 2002; correlating with warmer spring temperatures. This could be both detrimental and beneficial. It may provide more time for growth whilst reducing exposure to UVB radiation (Corn, 2005). On the other hand, it could also cause exposure to extreme spring temperatures (op.cit). Whilst some studies have shown significant trends towards earlier breeding, there have also been a similar proportion of findings conclu ding that climate has no influence upon breeding time (op.cit). Disease has been positively identified as a major cause for amphibian declines, and climate change could potentially facilitate the spread of infectious diseases, causing species to become more susceptible (Lips et al, 2008). Chytridiomycosis is a disease caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, and has been responsible for amphibian extinctions (Carey and Alexander, 2003). However, Lips et al (2008) found no evidence that climate change is the cause behind outbreaks of this disease. The chytrid fungus most likely prefers cooler temperatures and requires an aquatic environment for transmission (Corn, 2005). Therefore, the current trend towards a drier, warmer climate is not likely to encourage outbreaks of this disease (op.cit). A second fungus, Saprolegnia ferax, has been reported to cause mortality in particular amphibian species. Bufo boreas appears to only be susceptible to this pathogen in the presence of UVB radiation. Kiesecker et al (2001) concluded that low levels of precipitation during El Nià ±o southern oscillation years caused the embryos of B.boreas to develop in shallower water. This in turn exposed them to extreme UVB radiation and as a consequence, the fungus caused mortality (op.cit). Although the association between current amphibian declines and climate remains uncertain, future climate change will inevitably provide serious challenges for amphibians. Whilst many of these challenges can be scientifically predicted, predicting how species will react proves to be more complex. Unfortunately, only time will tell which species will survive and which species will fail to persist under the pressure of a rapidly change global climate. 3.0 Insects Insects are the most abundant group of animals on the planet, making up two thirds of all described extant animal species (Stange and Ayres, 2010). Like amphibians, insects are ectothermic so are also strongly influenced by external temperature and other climatic factors. They are extremely important within natural ecosystems due to their position at the bottom of the food chain, and play vital roles in processes such as decomposition and pollination. Insects also have economic involvements, with some species acting as pests and vectors of diseases. Therefore, research focusing on how insects respond to climate change is beneficial for both the natural environment and human economy. Since the 1990s many studies regarding insects in connection to climate change have been carried out (Musolin, 2007). It is expected to exert powerful effects upon abundance, physiology and distribution, with effects becoming more prominent as the severity of climate change increases (Stange and Ayres, 20 10). A change in the distribution of insects has been one of the most frequently reported responses (Musolin, 2007). Those species living in northern temperate regions appear to be expanding their range northwards or moving to higher altitudes (Maes et al, 2010). Such shifts in distribution have been recorded in a vast number of species. In the year 2000, the distribution of the Southern green stink bug (Nezara viridula) in Japan was found to have moved 70km further north of that recorded in the early 1960s (op.cit). Other Heteroptera species, such as those living in Southern Europe, have been recently discovered in the north, probably as a result of climatic variation (op.cit). In Britain, species of Orthoptera have also extended their range. The unusually warm summers of 1989/1990 caused the distribution of the long winged conehead (Conocephalus discolor) in north-western Europe to progress north and east (Cannon, 1998). The distribution of Lepidoptera has been well documented, ow ing to this groups high fecundity and dispersal ability, allowing distribution to be followed over a relatively short time period (Roy and Sparks, 2000). Observations of Lepidoptera species have been carried out for over 20 years in Finland and prominent northern range expansions have been recorded (Stange and Ayres, 2010). With many distribution shifts having already occurred, it is relatively easy to predict how a warmer future will affect present insect distributions. Range expansion towards the poles is most likely to become increasingly common, as insects seek out new habitats. A change in geographical distribution is just one way in which climate change has influenced, and will continue to influence, insects. A broad range of additional climate change induced effects, revealed through recent studies, will most likely impact upon the future survival and fitness of many species. High temperature reduces the time that is needed for insects to raise their body temperature to the f light activity threshold (Beaumont and Hughes, 2002). As an outcome of this, there may be an increase in activities that rely upon flight, such as mate location and egg laying (op.cit). As a result, many of the predicted impacts upon butterfly species have been positive. However, other aspects of climate change, such as drought, may have undesired effects. Prolonged arid conditions can have a negative impact upon host plant growth and egg survival (Roy and Sparks, 2000). One of the most recognized changes observed in butterflies is advancement in their first appearance (op.cit). This has been observed in most British butterfly species, showing a strong correlation with elevated temperatures. It has been predicted that per 1ËÅ ¡C temperature increase, the first appearance of butterflies could advance by 2-10 days (op.cit). Advances in appearance have also been demonstrated in other insect groups. One month advancement in the spring appearance of Heteroptera species was found in Japan, and was also a consequence of soaring temperatures (Musolin, 2007). Other responses noted in insects include behavioural responses in Heteroptera, though they havent been frequently discovered. In Italy, a large number of seed bugs entered urban buildings during the summer. Apparently, this was done in an attempt to escape the harsh high summer temperatures and to find more suitable conditions for aestivation (op.cit). The diversities of dragonfly, butterfly and grasshopper species are expected to decrease in Belgium, if the predicted climate scenarios for 2100 are correct (Maes, 2010). Mortality can be one of the direct consequences of temperature as insects have specie-specific upper and lower temperature limits. In peacock (Inachis io) and comma (Polygonia c-album) butterflies, the proportions of individuals reaching adulthood differed dramatically with varying temperature (Bryant et al, 1997). 60% survived at 15-30ËÅ ¡C, 0% at 9ËÅ ¡C and 20-40% at 34ËÅ ¡C ( op.cit). Whilst such implications of global climate change are worrying, there may be some potential benefits. Metabolic rate is expected to double with each 10ËÅ ¡C increase and mortality due to cold temperatures during the winter many reduce (Stange and Ayres, 2010). An increase in insect abundance is most probable and can be supported by recent outbreaks such as the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) in Central Europe (Cannon, 1998). The extent to which insects are susceptible to extinction will depend partly upon their geographical location. Those inhabiting the tropics are likely to be most at risk as they are highly sensitive to temperature and are already living fairly close to their upper thermal limits (Deutsch et al, 2008). Population growth rates in the tropics are predicted to decrease by up to 20%, further reducing fitness (op.cit). Biological traits which will cause species to have a greater extinction risk include reduced dispersal ability and low temperature toleranc e. (op.cit). Most species which possess such characteristics inhabit low latitude areas. Unfortunately, whilst tropical areas are the most vulnerable, they are also the parts of the world which harbour the greatest biodiversity. In comparison, those insects in mid-high latitude areas are expected to experience increased population growth rates (op.cit). At higher latitudes, organisms are living at temperatures that are cooler than their optimum temperatures, so global warming could potentially enhance their fitness (op.cit). It can be seen that much effort has been made in an attempt to understand the links between insects and global climate change, and research will continue to try and establish which species are of greatest conservation concern. However, a key consideration which will play a role in extinctions is the extent to which species will be able to adapt (Cannon, 1998). Unfortunately, this is tremendously complicated to predict and as a result, many studies often overlook , or some have even exaggerated potential evolutionary adaptations. During the quaternary period, large-scale fluctuations in climate occurred, but the insect fossil record provides no evidence for large-scale evolutionary change during this time (op.cit). Many studies have also focused heavily upon temperature effects and have poorly investigated how rainfall and moisture could impact insects. However, this is mainly due to lack of information, as making predictions about rainfall patterns is relatively difficult. It can be expected that climate change will increase the abundance and distribution of the majority of insects but it must be remembered that responses will be specie-specific and care must be taken to avoid over-generalising predicted responses. Effort must be made to enhance our understandings, whilst aiming to fill current gaps in knowledge. 4.0 Polar Bears The polar bear is often regarded as a marine mammal. Although this animal is quite efficient at exploiting marine habitats, it cannot survive within marine waters. Therefore this large predator can be more appropriately referred to as a terrestrial mammal as it lacks the specific adaptations possessed by true marine mammals such seals. Arctic sea-ice is critical to the survival of polar bears, as they depend upon it for numerous aspects of their ecology (Sterling and Derocher, 1993). It acts as a substrate on which to make long distance movements, provides access to maternal denning areas and is a platform for mating (op.cit). Most importantly, the ice allows polar bears to hunt and feed upon their primary prey; ringed seals (Pusa hispida) and bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus) (Regehr et al, 2010). Therefore, changes to sea-ice habitat are expected to have a dramatic impact upon the survival and reproduction of individuals, ultimately affecting the status of the polar bear as a spe cies. With global climate change well underway, changes to arctic ice have already been documented. Since 1978, 14% of the total amount of ice cover has already been lost (Derocher et al, 2004). Thinning of ice is occurring and sea ice is breaking earlier in the year and freezing later. It has been speculated that in as little as 100 years, the arctic ice cap may disappear completely (Sterling and Derocher, 1993). Numerous studies have demonstrated how changes in sea-ice, undoubtedly influenced by rising global temperatures, are causing polar bears to suffer as a result. Polar bears prefer to hunt on ice which lies over the continental shelf, as the waters here are more productive than arctic basin waters (Regeher et al, 2010). Therefore, longer ice free periods over this area could lead to reduced foraging success and in turn could impact survival and reproduction. Between 2001 and 2005, declines in polar bear survival were observed (op.cit). This observation was linked to longer i ce free periods over the continental shelf. It forced individuals to spend more time hunting on ice situated over less productive waters and caused some to seek alternative prey on land (Stirling and Parkinson, 2006). In western Hudson Bay, Canada, the sea-ice now melts completely each year, giving polar bears no other choice but to spend a proportion of the year ashore (Regehr et al, 2010). Individuals on land suffer food shortages. Ice free periods in 2004 and 2005 were associated with rare behaviour (op.cit). There were incidences of cannibalism and even starvation, indicating the severity of food unavailability (op.cit). In addition, living on land increases the exposure to humans, further enhancing their risk (Sterling and Derocher, 1993). Research concerning female polar bears has produced somewhat disturbing conclusions. Not only are the weights of females decreasing (figure 2), reducing cub survival and reproduction rates, but it is expected that within 100 years most female s in Western Hudson Bay will be unable to reach the minimum body mass required to rear viable offspring (Derocher et al, 2004). Figure 2 Mean estimated mass of lone (and thus possibly pregnant) adult female polar bears in Western Hudson Bay,1980-2004 (dashed line indicates fit of linear regression), (Sterling and Parkinson, 2006). Thinning of ice is also occurring due to climate change. Thinner ice moves more quickly which could mean that polar bears need to use more energy to stay in contact with their preferred habitats (Derocher et al, 2004). Ice of reduced thickness also breaks up more easily. It has been shown that polar bears completely abandon ice and move to land when the concentration of ice drops below 50% (Derocher et al, 2004). This is most probably due to the increased costs of locomotion which are associated with walking over fragmented ice (op.cit). Considering that ice is required for long-distance movements, changes in ice may influence the distribution of polar bears. Large areas of open water due to lack of ice in addition to strong currents, may function as barriers, preventing the movement of polar bears, as implicated in South-eastern Baffin Island and Eastern Beaufort Sea (Sterling and Derocher, 1993). Through the assessment of a variety of studies, it can be seen that the future for pol ar bears within the midst of climate change does not look hopeful. They are highly specialised mammals, are already listed as threatened under the US Endangered Species Act and their habitat is declining rapidly (Derocher, 2010). The population most at risk is that in Beaufort Sea, as it is experiencing severe nutritional stress. Drastic declines for this population are predicted and it may even vanish by the end of the century (Hunter, 2010). However, research has shown that there is still time to avoid such a scenario, providing effort is made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This indicates that the future of this species lies solely in the hands of policy makers, who have the supremacy to implement the nesseccary changes needed for not only the preservation of this species, but for many more too. 5.0 Birds Local variation in climate has long been recognised as an important factor affecting birds, but addressing how they will cope with long-term global climate change has only recently been attempted (Crick, 2004). Migratory birds have been of great interest, and this isnt surprising, considering that regular long-distance flights enable individuals to exploit various climates in different locations around the globe. Warmer winters are predicted to cause a slight increase in the number of short-distance migrant and resident bird species, whilst there will be a strong decline in the number of long-distance migrants (Lemoine and BoÃÅ'ˆhning-Gaese, 2003). This will likely be due to the increased competition resulting from resident bird species benefiting from the warmer conditions (op.cit). Migratory birds are also thought to be affected by mistiming, a result of climate change. This is when birds fail to breed at the time when their main food supply is most abundant (Both et al, 2006) . A study concerning the long-distance migratory pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) showed that populations declined by 90% in 20 years as a consequence of this (op.cit). However, on a more positive note, it has been suggested that migratory birds are faced with a lower extinction risk that sedentary species, due to their high mobility (Sekercioglu et al, 2008). With the forecast of an intermediate climate change scenario (surface warming of 2.8ËÅ ¡C), it can be expected that 5% of sedentary species will become extinct, compared to 1% of long-distance migrants (op.cit). Global climate change appears to be causing birds to lay their eggs earlier. Data derived from the British Trust of Ornithology Nest Record Scheme revealed that 51 UK species showed trends towards earlier laying over a 25 year period (Crick, 2004). These trends were apparent throughout a variety of bird groupings including seed eaters, corvids and water birds (op.cit). The pied flycatcher exhibited an increase in egg and clutch size when eggs were laid earlier, indicating that warmer temperatures may be advantageous (op.cit). By the year 2080, it has been estimated that laying dates will be earlier for 75% of bird species (Crick and Sparks, 1999). This is a positive prediction as the advancement of laying dates suggests that birds are coping with temperature rises (Both et al, 2004). It may also mean that the incidence of mistiming may be reduced as the timing of hatching will be brought closer to that of peak food supply. In terms of distribution, elevational distribution shifts are probable. Pounds et al (1999) studied the mountain cloud forests of Costa Rica. It was shown that global warming had caused the average altitude at the base of the orographic cloud base to rise. This resulted in the colonization of previously cloud forest areas by birds from lower altitudes (Crick, 2004). There are concerns that such changes could have a detrimental impact upon some species. Through modellin g in the UK it has been suggested that species such as the snow bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis) may contract their range or even vanish from current breeding areas in the mountainous zones of the Grampians, Scotland (op.cit). Sekercioglu et al (2008) undertook a study to discover the impact of elevational limitations on the extinction risk of land birds (87% of all bird species). It was found that limitations in elevation actually accounted for 97% of the probability of a species being in a World Conservation Union category of extinction risk (op.cit). Using a model that combined elevational limitations and four habitat loss scenarios, it was predicted that 400-550 avian land species will be extinct and a further 2150 will be at risk, under an intermediate climate change scenario for 2100 (Figure 3 and Figure 4). Figure 3 The number of world landbird species estimated to be extinct by 2100, on the basis of different surface warming estimates, three possible shifts in lower elevational limit and four Millennium Assessment habitat change scenarios (Sekercioglu et al, 2008). Figure 4 The number of world landbird species estimated to be at risk of extinction (near threatened or threatened) by 2100, on the basis of different surface warming estimates, three possible shifts in lower elevational limit and four Millennium Assessment habitat change scenarios (Sekercioglu et al, 2008). 6.0 Conclusion Although most responses to global climate change are expected to be specie-specific, potential distributional changes appear to be quite uniform. Northern distribution shifts are likely to become increasingly common as species seek cooler climates. Elevational distributional changes will also occur, though elevational limitations in birds may increase their extinction risk. Impacts may range from phenological changes such as earlier breeding, to mortality resulting from temperatures exceeding thermal limits. Insects could potentia